Mixed Race Studies

Mentality of Racial Hybrids

American Journal of Sociology
Volume 36, Number 4 (January 1931)
pages 534-551
DOI: 10.1086/215474

Robert E. Park (1864-1944), Professor of Sociology
University of Chicago

Racial hybrids are one of the natural and inevitable results of migration and the consequent mingling of divergent racial stocks.  The motives bringing peoples of divergent races and cultures together are, in the first instance, economic.  In the long run, economic intercourse enforces more intimate personal and cultural relations, and eventually amalgamation takes place.  When the peoples involved are widely different in culture and in racial characteristics, and particularly when they are distinguished by physical marks, assimilation and amalgamation take place very slowly.  When the resulting hybrid peoples exhibit physical traits that mark them off and distinguish them from both parent-stocks, the mixed bloods are likely to constitute a distinct caste or class occupying a position and status midway between the two races of which they are composed.  The mixed bloods tend everywhere to be, as compared with the full bloods with whom they are identified, an intellectual and professional class.  The most obvious and generally accepted explanation of the superiority of the mixed bloods is that the former are products of two races, one of which is biologically inferior and the other biologically superior.  In the case of the Negro-white hybrids in the United States, other and less obvious explanations have been offered.  It has been pointed out, for example, that the mulatto is the result of a social selection which began during the period of slavery, when the dominant whites selected for their concubines the most comely, and presumably the superior, women among the Negroes.  There is, however, the fact to be considered that in a society where racial distinctions are rigidly maintained, the mixed blood tends to be be keenly conscious of his position.  He feels, as he frequently says, the conflict of warring ancestry in his veins.  The conflict of color is embodied, so to speak, in his person.  His mind is the melting pot in which the lower and higher cultures meet and fuse…

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The Problem of the Marginal Man

American Journal of Sociology
Volume 41, Number 1 (July 1935)
Pages 1-12
DOI: 10.1086/217001

Everett V. Stonequist (1901-1979), Professor of Sociology
Skidmore College

The marginal man arises in a bi-cultural or multi-cultural situation.  The natural desire of the mixed-blood is to advance toward the group occupying the higher status.  He may be forced to accept the status of the lower group, possibly becoming their leader.  He may be rejected by both groups.  Where accommodation, rather than conflict, prevails, the mixed blood may constitute a middle class.  With intermarriage the mixed-blood approximates more nearly the status of the dominate race.  The marginal individual experiences what [W. E. B.] Du Bois has analyzed as “double consciousness.”  It is as if he regarded himself through two looking-glasses presenting clashing images.  The marginal individual passes through a life-cycle:  introduction to the two cultures, crisis, and adjustment.  The natural history involves an initial phase with a small group of marginal individuals who are ahead of the minority.  This group increases, and a movement develops having as a goal some kind of equality and independence.  The final outcome may be a new social framework; if assimilation is facilitated, the minority may be incorporated into the dominant group, or become the dominant group, and the cycle ends…

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In mixed-race couples, fathers profoundly influence their children’s racial identifications

Research@Rice
2006-09-15

In mixed-race couples, fathers profoundly influence their children’s racial identifications. Interracial marriage increased seven-fold from 1970 to 2000, and how the children of these marriages view their racial identity has a lot to do with their father’s race and the number of father-child interactions, according to Rice University sociologist Holly Heard. In particular, children in families where the father is African-American are much more likely to identify with their father’s race, compared to children with fathers of other races.

With the rising number of interracial marriages, more children are questioning their racial identity. Currently, 6.4 percent of all U.S. children live in households headed by interracial married couples, and the number of children likely to deal with the racial-identity question will continue to grow.

It’s something that children of same-race parents never have to think about, said Rice University sociologist Holly Heard. Heard and Rice colleague Jenifer Bratter, both assistant professors of sociology, collaborated on research to understand how children from mixed-race families identify themselves. “Children do not racially identify in a vacuum; multiple factors are involved,” Heard explained. “However, the important influence dads have on racial identification became very clear.”…

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Multiracial College Students: Understanding Interpersonal Self-Concept in the First Year

The University of Michigan
2010
151 pages

Mark Allen Kamimura

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Education) in The University of Michigan 2010

This purpose of this study was to explore the differences between mixed and single race students in the factors that contribute to an interpersonal self-concept. The data in this study are drawn from a national longitudinal survey, Your First College Year (YFCY), from 2004-2005 and include mixed race Black and Asian students and their single race Black and Asian peers to explore interpersonal self-concept.

The results suggest that mixed and single race Asian and Black students have different pre-college and first year experiences, but only mixed race Black students were found to develop a significantly higher interpersonal self-concept after their first-year than their single race peers. Most importantly for mixed and single race students are their interactions with diverse peers. For all groups, both negative and positive interactions based on race within the college environment directly impact interpersonal self-concept. First-year college experiences (Positive Ethnic/Racial Relations, Racial Interactions of a Negative Quality, Leadership Orientation, Sense of Belonging, Campus Racial Climate, Self-Assessed Cognitive Development) were the most significant contributors to the development of an interpersonal self-concept in comparison to pre-college experiences.

The findings in this study expand the literature on multiracial college students and provide empirical evidence to support institutional practices that aim to promote a positive interpersonal self-concept in the first college year.

Table of Contents

• DEDICATION
• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
• LIST OF FIGURES
• LIST OF TABLES
• LIST OF APPENDICES
• ABSTRACT
• CHAPTER 1
  • INTRODUCTION
    • Statement of the Problem
    • Purpose and Scope of the Study
    • Significance of the Study
    • Contributions of the Study
• CHAPTER 2
  • LITERATURE REVIEW
    • The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the Census 2000
    • Social Construction of Race and Racial Categories
    • Multiracial Terminology
    • College Student Identity
  • Overview of Relevant Studies on Mixed and Single Race Students
    • Multiracial Students in Higher Education
    • Relevant Studies of Multiracial Individuals
    • Relevant Individual Race Studies
  • Theories on Multiracial Identity
    • Linear Racial Identity Development Approach
    • Resolution Approach
    • Ecological Approach
  • Comparisons Between Single-Race and Multiracial Research
    • Theoretical Comparison
  • Indicators of Multiracial Interpersonal Self-Concept
    • Positional
    • Resources
    • Information
    • Relationships
    • Environment
    • Involvement
    • Politics
    • Identity
    • Personal
    • Conceptual Mode
• CHAPTER 3
  • METHODOLOGY
    • Date Sources and Data Collection
    • Sample
    • The 48 Cases
    • Dependent Variable
    • Independent Variables
    • Conceptual Regression Model
    • Data Preparation
    • Limitations
• CHAPTER 4
  • RESULTS
    • Independent t-Tests
      • Single Race Black Students and Mixed Race Black Students (Independent Variables)
      • Single Race Asian Students and Mixed Race Asian Students (Independent Variables)
      • Interpersonal Self-concept (Dependent Variable)
      • Summary
    • Multivariate Analysis
      • Interpersonal Self-Concept for First Year Mixed and Single Race Black Students
      • Summary
      • Interpersonal Self-Concept for First Year Mixed and Single Race Asian Students
      • Summary
      • Comparison of Interpersonal Self-Concept Between Groups
      • Summary of Results
• CHAPTER 5
  • DISCUSSION
    • Summary of Findings
    • Implications to Practice in Higher Education
      • Student Affairs
      • Academic Incorporation
      • Higher Education and Institutional Policy
    • Implications for Research
      • Theory
      • Design and Methodology
      • Future Research
    • Conclusion
• APPENDICES
• REFERENCES

List of Figures

• Figure 2.1 Conceptual Model for Interpersonal Self-Concept
• Figure 3.1 Conceptual Regression Model

LIST OF TABLES

• Table 2.1 Factors Contributing to a Multiracial Interpersonal Self-Concept
• Table 3.1 Sample Size
• Table 3.2 Interpersonal Self-concept Factor Analysis
• Table 3.3 Summary of Variables and Indices
• Table 3.4 Factor Analysis Descriptive Statistics
• Table 3.5 Positive Race/Ethnic Relations
• Table 3.6 Racial/Ethnic Interactions of a Negative Quality
• Table 3.7 Campus Racial Climate
• Table 3.8 Race/Ethnic Composition of the Environment
• Table 3.9 Leadership and Community Orientation
• Table 3.10 Informed Citizenship
• Table 3.11 Satisfaction with College
• Table 3.12 Sense of Belonging
• Table 3.13 Self-Assessed Cognitive Development
• Table 4.1 Frequencies, Means, Standard deviations, and Test of Significance on Independent Variables for Entire Sample by Race (Total Black n=2647 and Total Black+n=485)
• Table 4.2 Means, Standard deviations, and Test of Significance on Independent Variables for Entire Sample by Race (Asian Total n=1927 and Total Asian+n=464)
• Table 4.3 Means, Standard deviations, and Individual and Paired Tests of Significance on Dependent Variables for Entire Sample by Race (Black Total n=2647 and Total Black+n=485) and (Asian Total n=1927 and Total Asian+ n=464)
• Table 4.4 Standardized beta coefficients for blocked entry regression on Dependent Variable Interpersonal Self-Concept (α=.599) for Entire Sample: Black and Black+ (n = 2,434)
• Table 4.5 Standardized beta coefficients for blocked entry regression on Dependent Variable Interpersonal Self-Concept (α=.647) for Entire Sample: Asian and Asian+ (n = 2,158)
• Table 4.6 Unstandardized beta coefficients for blocked entry regression on DependentVariable Interpersonal Self-Concept. Comparison of Black and Black+ (α=.599, n = 2,434) and Asian and Asian+ (α=.647, n = 2,158)

LIST OF APPENDICES

• APPENDIX A: Office of Management and Budget Information
• APPENDIX B: Renn’s Ecology of College Student Development Model

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Germany’s history has established a unique context for biracial individuals. For one, foreigners that look different have a hard time being accepted as German citizens. While the most prominent political activists of the Afro-German movement were women, Afro-German men chose the venue of music to express their struggle for identity and acceptance. Their contribution to the Afro-German movement of the early 1990s emphasized German citizenship and a demand to be recognized as Germans (El-Tayeb, 2003). Afro-Germans do not enjoy the advantages of “uncontested national belonging that come with being white” (El-Tayeb, 2003, pg. 479). The Hip-Hop group Brother’s Keepers addressed this issue with their song “Fremd im Eigenen Land” (Stranger in your own country) (El-Tayeb, 2003). African Americans living in the United States do not typically struggle with this issue. Nationality of Americans is not defined by racial make up, but in national allegiance (Asante, 2005). As a consequence, Afro-Germans have a problem with “cultural location”: The dilemma they face because they are “born in Germany, are educated in Germany, and view themselves as German yet in the minds of their fellow citizens they are not truly German because they do not have pure German ancestry” (Asante, 2005)…

Adjustment Problems in Adolescence: Are Multiracial Children at Risk?

American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
Volume 70, Issue 4 (October 2000)
pages 433–444
DOI: 10.1037/h0087744

M. Elise Radina, Associate Professor of Family Studies & Social Work
Miami University, Ohio

Teresa M. Cooney, Associate Professor of Human Develpopment and Family Studies
University of Missouri

Data from a national survey were used to compare adjustment between a group of multiracial adolescents and two groups of single-race adolescents, grades seven to twelve. Significant differences were found on fewer than half of the school, behavioral, and psychological dimensions that were assessed. Implications for research and school interventions are discussed.

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Relationship Quality Between Multiracial Adolescents and Their Biological Parents

American Journal of Orthopsychiatry
Volume 70, Issue 4 (October 2000)
pages 445–454
DOI: 10.1037/h0087763

M. Elise Radina, Associate Professor of Family Studies & Social Work
Miami University, Ohio

Teresa M. Cooney, Associate Professor of Human Develpopment and Family Studies
University of Missouri

National survey data were used to compare single-race white and minority adolescents with multiracial adolescents in terms of relationships with their parents. Three relational dimensions were considered: association/interaction, communication, and emotional closeness. Comparable relationship quality was found between parents and adolescents in all three groups, except that multiracial boys and their fathers were found to be less emotionally close and communicative. Implications for research are discussed.

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Racial Etiquette: Nella Larsen’s Passing and the Rhinelander Case

Meridians: feminism, race, transnationalism
Volume 5, Number 2, 2005
pages 1-29
E-ISSN: 1547-8424
Print ISSN: 1536-6936
DOI: 10.1353/mer.2005.0013

Miriam Thaggert, Associate Professor of English and African-American Studies
University of Iowa

In Passing Nella Larsen seems to suggest that identity is a hazy fiction one tells that outward appearances and surface events only partly confirm. Rather than directly stating their thoughts, characters communicate through an exchange of looks—particularly her two light-skinned female characters, Irene and Clare. These subtle forms of expression heighten the sense of uncertainty throughout the novel. The reader never learns explicitly the reason for Clare’s fall out of a window, the reality of a homosexual longing between Clare and Irene, or the true nature of the relationship between Clare and Irene’s husband. This indeterminacy extends to the racial identity of Larsen’s characters, an identity not always easily discernible because of the characters’ mixed racial background and their inclination to “pass.”  Without adequate markings or clues, any reading, whether of identities or situations, is flawed or incorrect.

A brief, almost offhand, remark Irene makes refers to a legal trial in which these issues of knowledge, passing, and the gaze combined in a process to interrogate the race and veracity of a woman. The Rhinelander case was an annulment proceeding in which wealthy, white Leonard Kip Rhinelander sued his wife, Alice Beatrice Jones, for fraud. Leonard claimed he did not know that his light-skinned wife was “colored,” the daughter of a white woman and a dark-skinned cab driver.  Larsen’s reference to the Rhinelanders occurs only once, near the end of the novel, after Irene suspects that her husband, Brian, is having an affair with Clare…

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‘It’s like I’m part of every race’

The Straits Times
Malaysia
2010-08-08

Edora Mayangsari Lopez, 18
Eurasian-Malay

The psychology student at the Management Development Institute of Singapore has a Eurasian father and a Malay-Javanese mother. Both of them are Singaporeans.

She is the younger of two children and has relatives in Europe, Australia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Her family lives in Marsiling.

She studied at Si Ling Primary School and Woodlands Secondary School.

Q: How has your mixed heritage shaped your identity?

I did go through an identity crisis phase in my early years of growing up, but I’ve learnt that race is just one aspect of my identity.

I’m not a stereotypical Malay and neither am I too ‘Eurasian’. I am a blend of these two cultures and their values.

Q: What are the pros and cons of having a mixed heritage? What kind of challenges have you encountered?

One possible advantage would be the number of festivals I get to celebrate – Christmas, Hari Raya and even Chinese New Year.

It’s like I’m part of every race. I get presents and red packets more than once a year, a double plus point.

Being mixed also means that your relatives have different religions.

For example, I am a Muslim and there are certain food and drinks that I can’t consume when I attend family functions. But I’m never excluded because of that. I’m very thankful for a thoughtful and understanding extended family who takes me for who I am.

I have encountered some hurtful remarks and discrimination with regard to my looks. People tend to think that Eurasians are Caucasians and some have asked me why I’m not fair or why I have black hair. I cope by simply ignoring them or just letting the comments pass…

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Voices from the Gaps: Kym Ragusa

Voices from the Gaps
University of Minnesota
2007-04-24

Shalee Dettmann
Joey Grihalva
Jenna Fodness
Gaushia Thao

I don’t know where I was conceived, but I was made in Harlem. Its topography is mapped on my body: the borderlines between neighborhoods marked by streets that were forbidden to cross, the borderlines enforced by fear and anger, and transgressed by desire. The streets crossing east to west, north to south, like the web of veins beneath my skin.

 The Skin Between Us (26)

In the prologue of her acclaimed memoir, The Skin Between Us, Kym Ragusa writes of a journey she took in 1999 to her paternal ancestors’ home of Messina, Italy. A year after the death of her two grandmothers—the central figures in her personal life, each representing her Italian and African-American heritage respectively—Ragusa embarks on a search for clues about her identity. This journey is symbolic of her artistic work as she is constantly involved in the formulation and explication of what it means to be multicultural.

Kym Ragusa was born February of 1966 in Manhattan, NY. Ragusa comes from a mixed background: her mother is African American and her father is Italian. Ragusa’s ancestors on her mother’s side were brought to the United States as African slaves…

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